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【印度教和佛教】印度是什么:印度教为何战胜了佛教_牛宝宝文章网【印度教和佛教】印度是什么:印度教为何战胜了佛教专题:编者按:自《印度是什么》一文发表后,读者提问积极。大象读者对印度的了解和兴趣远超我们预期。更有不少高水平的“刁钻”提问,让身为印度人的Banerjee小姐也颇为头疼。中国人一般都很好奇,贵为世界三大宗教之一的佛教在其发源地印度为何乏人问津?佛教和印度教到底是什么关系?本次为大家呈现的是Banerjee小姐对两个非常具有代表性的问题的回答:1、读者Fred Young提出:你好,Banerjee小姐。中国人都知道佛教起源于古印度(今尼泊尔),常常理所当然地认为印度是佛教国家,或者以为印度教是佛教的分支。可否请你向中国读者简要介绍两个宗教的关系和区别?2、读者Water提出:印度教怎么发展起来把佛教弄没了,他们俩啥关系?感谢这两位读者提出的问题。为力图原汁原味地呈现Banerjee小姐对这两个问题的看法,我们将她回答的英文原稿与翻译稿一同为读者呈上。欢迎读者朋友们继续点击文末的阅读原文,向Banerjee小姐提问。The diversions of Buddhism from Hinduism佛教之于印度教的偏移作者:Banerjee1、Hinduism一、印度教In a country as culturally diverse as India, glamorised with numerous celebrations, it is not uncommon for many to explore the origins of such festivities. While it is a fact that not all festivals have originated from Hinduism, most of them such as Diwali (festival of lights), Holi (festival of colours), and Ganesh Chaturthi (a time to remove obstacles and invoke a new beginning) have had their metaphorical and philosophical basis from the religion. In essence, celebrating the festivals is an opportunity for Indians to reflect upon the wisdom and teachings of Hinduism that can be traced back to ancient times.在一个文化有如印度般多元,被各种节庆所点缀的国度,很多人都热衷于探索这些节庆的来源。虽然并非所有节庆都来源于印度教,但多数重要节日如Diwali(排灯节/光明节)、Holi(色彩节)和Ganesh Chaturthi(象头神节,辞旧迎新之时)的哲学和隐喻的根源都和宗教息息相关。事实上,庆祝节日从古至今都是印度人反省印度教智慧与教导的好机会。日,印度的印度教教徒举行盛大仪式庆祝象头神节Hinduism is a collection of philosophical and metaphysical beliefs that have developed over a long period monly understood as more of a way of life than an official religion, Hinduism offers a philosophy that is rooted in liberation of the soul back to its purest form, from the illusions, drudgeries and desires of the world. The genesis of Hinduism has perplexed many scholars over the years as there are no formal accounts of its actual beginning. However the religion is believed to be over five thousand years old and probably the part of the oldest civilization known to the world.印度教是长期积累的一整套哲学和形而上学观念。一般情况下印度教并不被当作一种正式的宗教,而是更多的体现在生活方式上。印度教植根于一种向往灵魂获得自由,返回最纯净状态,远离俗世的虚妄、劳苦、欲求的哲学。很久以来,印度教的形成使不少学者备感困扰——并无正式的文献记载印度教究竟是如何起源的。但是,这门宗教据信已有超过五千年的历史,很可能是世上所知最古老文明的一部分。Between 750 and 550 B.C , Hindu pundits (priests) tried to reveal the hidden meaning of the Vedas. A stark observation about the Vedas is that they were recited by the priests to the disciples. Spiritually enlightened priests who had been through years and years of meditation had developed an innate understanding on the nature of reality, morality , eternal life and the functions of the soul, which were later on written down as Upanishads, a series of which made each Veda.公元前750年到550年,印度贤者(僧侣)试图揭开《吠陀经》隐含的含义。吠陀经的一项重要特征是由僧侣吟唱,传承给学徒。通过长年冥想,在精神上觉醒的僧侣可以具有内在的,对现实、道德、永生和灵魂的作用本质上的理解,这些后来被写成奥义书,一系列的奥义书即成一部吠陀。The formats of the Upanishads were written as dialogues or discussions between a student and a teacher which carefully aim at exploring how a person can achieve liberation from desires and suffering. The ultimate objective of a Hindu is the state of perfect understanding of all things, also known as “Moksha”. It is important for most Hindus to ultimately understand “atman” (the individual soul of a living being) and the interconnectedness it has with that of “brahman” (the universal soul) as a prerequisite in achieving “Moksha”. Karma has been customised as a misunderstood concept that explains the feeble connections of ones actions and the repercussions of them. However, the true Hindu belief of Karma lies in ones’ perfect understanding of the atman and brahman in order to avoid rebirths. The idea of rebirth in Hinduism refers to the soul’s karma , delivering both the good and bad deeds leading that lead from one reincarnation to another. It is popularly believed that Karma influences specific life circumstances, such as the caste one is born into, one’s state of health, wealth or poverty, and so on.奥义书的文体为记录学生与老师对话的问答体。对话就一个人该如何解脱欲求与苦厄,获得自由进行了认真地探索。一个印度教徒的最终目标便是达到完美的、理解万事的状态,这种状态被称为Moksha。对大多数印度教徒而言,最终理解atman(个体灵魂)及其与brahman(万物灵魂)之间的联系至关重要,这也是修得Moksha的先决条件。宗业(因果报应)经常被误解为一种解释个体行为及其后果的弱关系的概念。真正的印度教徒对宗业的信仰则在于个体对atman和brahman的完美理解以避免轮回。印度教中,轮回的概念指灵魂宗业,通过做好事与坏事导致从一种转世到另一种转世。一种很通行的信念是宗业对特定的生活条件有影响,譬如一个人诞生于什么种姓,他的健康状况,富有抑或贫穷等等。Hindu ideas about karma and reincarnation strengthened the caste system. If a person was born as an upper-caste male—a Brahmin, warrior, or merchant—his good fortune was said to come from good karma earned in a former life. Nevertheless, throughout history, many in India have had a partial and perhaps inaccurate understanding regarding the exact principle of Karma and Moksha and in the same period of speculation, the other religious doctrines attempted to simplify the complex metaphors of Hinduism.印度教的宗业和转世概念强化了种姓系统。如果一个人生为高种姓男性——婆罗门、勇士、商人等,他的幸运便会归结于前世造下的好宗业。虽说如此,在历史长河中,很多印度人对宗业和Moksha的理解却一度失之片面甚至不准确。在那些印度教并不盛行的时代,其他的宗教教条应运而生,试图简化印度教复杂的隐喻。印度种姓制度简易示意图2、Buddhism二、佛教Buddhism emerged from Magadha (now known as Bihar) during the same time to offer a pragmatic view of people could achieve the egoless state of “Nirvana”. Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism was born into a family that lived in Kapilavastu, in the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal. Prophecy had it that if young Siddhartha was to become a ruler, he had to isolate himself from the world and stay within the domains of his kingdom. If he ventured out at age, he would eventually transform into a universal spiritual leader. Despite having married and becoming a father, the philosophical quest for Gautama led him to explore the mysteries of human nature and life. He was overwhelmed and particularly attentive to old men, sick men and corpses in cremation grounds. Eventually, the sight of a holy man sitting by the river side had offered spiritual refuge from the thought of inevitable suffering. He spent six years wandering through Indian forests in search of wisdom, practices that could lead him to an enlightened state and eternal knowledge which could eradicate suffering.与此同时,佛教从摩揭陀(今比哈尔邦)崛起,它给人民提供了一个实际的、可以修得无我状态(涅槃)的愿景。佛教的创立者——乔达摩悉达多,出生于喜马拉雅山脚下的迦毗罗卫(今尼泊尔境内)。有预言说如果年轻的悉达多想要成为一个统治者的话,他必须将自己与世界孤立起来,并且不可迈出他的王国一步。如果成年后走出了王国,乔达摩则会成为一个普世的精神领袖。虽然已经结婚生子,但对哲学的诉求还是让他选择去探索人类本质与生命的奥秘。他震惊于碰到的老人、病人和火葬场的尸体。最终,一个在河边打坐的圣人让乔达摩在思考无法避免的苦厄时得到了精神上的慰藉。他花了六年时间逡巡于印度的丛林之中,以求让他能够达到觉悟状态的智慧和办法,并获得恒久的、可以消灭苦厄的知识。Buddhism strangely was born of Gautama’s relentless determination to find enlightenment through continuously meditating for 49 days. Historically, Indians regard the fig tree as being sacred due to Buddha (then Siddharth) assuming an enlightened status having sat under one. Many saints and sages in India meditate under fig trees in pursuit of enlightenment, following the footsteps of the Buddha. His realisations revolved around four main ideas through which he understood enlightenment or a “nirvana” which is a state in which all suffering ceases to exist. The ideas were formalised as the Four Noble Truths where (a) Everything in life is suffering and sorrow, (b) The cause of all suffering is people’s selfish desire for the temporary pleasures of this world, (c) The way to end all suffering is to end all desires and (d) The way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold Path, which is called the Middle Way between desires and self-denial.很有意思的是,佛教的诞生源自乔达摩坚定不移追求觉悟时连续的49天冥想。历史上,印度人认为菩提树是神圣的,因为佛陀(悉达多)是在一颗菩提树下达到的觉悟。很多印度的圣人和智者都追寻佛陀的脚步,在菩提树下冥想以求觉悟。佛陀的认识围绕着四个主要思想,通过它们理解觉悟或者“涅槃”——一种所有苦厄都不存在的状态。这些想法形成了佛教的“四谛”:“苦谛”,生命到处都是苦痛;“集谛”,一切苦厄的根源在于人类为了追求现世暂时的愉悦而拥有的自私欲求;“灭谛”,消灭一切苦厄的方法是消灭一切欲求;“道谛”,克服欲求,达到觉悟的方法是追寻“八道”,即欲求和克己之间的中道。印度比哈尔邦菩提伽耶摩诃菩提寺中乔达摩三十五岁等身像The Buddha’s teachings included many ideas from the Hindu tradition. However, they also differed sharply from that of some. Reincarnation was a commonality between the two religions.He had accepted a cyclical, or repetitive, view of history, where the world is created and destroyed over and over again. However, the Buddha disapproved the privileges of the Brahmin priests, and thus he rejected the caste system. The final goals of both religions—moksha for Hindus and nirvana for Buddhist were similar where both involve a perfect state of understanding and a break from the chain of reincarnations.佛陀的教导囊括了印度教传统的诸多思想,但它们也有着相当鲜明的不同。转世概念两种宗教皆有,佛陀认可一种循环、乃至重复的历史观,其中世界反复被创建、摧毁,循环往复。佛陀不认可的是婆罗门僧侣的特权,因而他否定了种姓制度。两种宗教的最终目标——印度教徒的Moksha和佛教徒的涅槃颇为接近,都包括达到一种完美觉悟的状态,从转世的链条中解脱。3、Buddhism declined in India三、佛教在印度的衰落The fate of Buddhism in India saw its gradual demise through its own principle of “Anicca”. “All is Flux” is the fundamental principle of Buddhism that alludes to the concept of impermanence. Irrespective of whether the dying away is metaphorical, symbolic or physical, Buddhism has maintained the importance of transforming the original state to that of something else. It was this particular ideology that may have created problems in the staunch castes divided social fabric of ancient India. This is because Indian civilisation and the Brahmanical traditions in those days were fatalistic about an individual’s life path based on the caste they were born into. Buddhism rejected this notion and provided a universal pathway which did not discriminate one based on their inherent caste but discerned individuals on their rigorous morality and orientation to become disciplined.佛教在印度命运多舛,它逐渐衰落是由自身“无常”的思想所致。“万事皆空”是佛教的核心理念,它暗含无常的概念。无论消逝的是暗喻、象征、还是实物,佛教其最初的状态发生了改变。可能正是由于这一思想,导致了佛教在被顽固种姓制度分割的古印度社会举步维艰,当年印度文明和婆罗门传统都认为一个人一生的道路是由他生来归属的种姓所注定的。佛教却拒绝这一看法,提供了一条不因人的天生种姓而歧视,反而重视通过个人严格道德要求和取向自律的普世道路。The social framework of ancient India that propagated the caste system was not conducive to the Buddhist egalitarian principles and what made it even more difficult was the exclusion of the complexities of social and psychological needs of people in search of enlightenment. A Hindu would have to give up all he or she had known about their lineage in order to be indoctrinated into this alternate religion. This meant they would have to reject the social construct of caste system which provided a sense of belonging to them and embark upon an individual journey to find the truth. It would have been difficult for Buddha to explain the actual insights that would encourage followers on his version of truth.古代印度建立在种姓制度基础之上的社会结构并不有助于佛教众生平等理念的传播。更麻烦的是,佛教排除了追寻觉悟者复杂的社会和心理需求。一个印度教徒必须放弃他所知道的、关于自己家族种系的全部东西才可以加入佛教。这意味着他们必须拒绝社会种姓系统为他们提供的归属感,独自踏上追寻真理的旅程。这让佛陀很难向人们解释洞见,以便更多的人选择相信他的真理版本。Another important and perhaps a more significant contribution to the decline of Buddhism in India was due to the emergence of the “Bhakti Movement” (Devotional Movement) after 1323 in Kashmir and Bengal (North and East India). As an antidote to the caste system in ancient India, a collective and transcendental version of Hinduism emerged from a part of the Vedas that was originally hidden. The “Advaita Vedanta” (not-two, singular in Sankrit) preached a form of enlightenment which was possible through knowledge of the self in all its components and attributes. The Advaita form of Hinduism did not discriminate against caste, ethnicity, religion or any form of social divide. Under its principles, both the Brahmin (highest caste) and the Sudras (lowest caste) were equal recipients of the eternal wisdom of Hinduism in its Advaita form that would grant “Moksha” or “Nirvana”.另外一个让佛教在印度衰落的重要原因是1323年后在北印度克什米尔和东印度孟加拉发生的Bhakti运动(虔诚派运动)。作为对古代印度种姓制度的矫正,一个更加集体而先验的印度教从部分隐匿的吠陀经中诞生。“Advaita Vedanta”(不二,梵语为单数)传播一种形式的觉悟。达到这种觉悟可能更依赖于通过了解自身所有的组成和特征。不二形式的印度教不以种姓、民族、宗教或其他社会分割而歧视。在这种思想下,婆罗门(最高种姓)和首陀罗(最低种姓)都可以接收到不二形式的印度教永恒智慧,从而获得“Moksha”或涅槃。What made matters more interesting was the political infusion of Indian nationalism with that Hindu Universalism during the British Raj. The colonisation of India by the British lead to the Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which transformed the way the East and the West understood Hinduism. In order to fight off oppression, the idea of a unifying Vedic force which defined the essence of Hinduism was intensely propagated by Hindu reformers. This not only cemented the concept of a unified religious sect that shared universal truths but also a nation that desired to transcend the predisposed attributes (such as the caste system) of Indians. The Hindu reformers founded the “Brahmo Samaj” (based on the Brahman- universal soul), and were supported by the Unitarian Church due to the perception of shared principles and ideologies.更有意思的地方在于印度民族主义与印度教普遍主义在英国殖民时代的融合。英国人对印度的殖民导致了19世纪的印度教复兴,改变了东方和西方对印度教的理解。为了反抗压迫,印度教改革者强烈地主张通过一种具有统一性的吠陀力量来阐述印度教核心的思想。这不仅粘合了一个统一的,分享普遍性真理的宗教团体的概念,也催生出了一个想要超越固有印度特质(如种姓系统)的民族。这些印度教改革者创立了“Brahmo Samaj”(基于Brahman——万物灵魂),并因共通的理念和思想观感取得了一神会的支持。Gradually, Vedanta was known to be the essence of Hinduism and Advaita Vedanta , the true metaphysical philosophy of this multifaceted religion. As a result of the popularised notion of Adavaita Vedanta throughout India and the West, an opportunity was provided for the simultaneous construction of a nationalist ideology which would free India from the clutches of colonial oppression of the British to the theological threats of alternate pathways of Buddhism.渐渐地,吠檀多(终极吠陀)成为印度教和不二的精髓,这门多层面宗教真正的形而上学哲学。因为流行思想不二论在印度和西方传播的缘故,印度教有了一个机会:在构建民族意识形态的同时,使得印度可以摆脱英国殖民的压迫与桎梏,并扫清佛教在神学上的潜在威胁。印度教圣地,恒河河畔的瓦拉纳西版权声明大象公会所有文章均为原创,版权归大象公会所有。如希望转载,请事前联系我们:bd@idaxiang.org知识 | 见识 | 见闻转载请保留本文连接:分享到:相关文章声明:《【印度教和佛教】印度是什么:印度教为何战胜了佛教》由“紫星淚”分享发布,如因用户分享而无意侵犯到您的合法权益,请联系我们删除。TA的分享403 Forbidden
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中世纪(西元500年~1450年)
the middle way
1938年,英国保守党代表麦克米伦(Harold Macmillan)写了一本名为《中间路线》(The Middle Way)的著作,其后他在1957年至1963年就任英国首相也是套用这个政治理念来管治英国。
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生活上也有著慢步调,生活上有所谓的中庸之道(the middle way)(Mell anmj kens Land),举例来说:大多数瑞典国民在超商.
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...来讲,两种重组社会和政治结构的形式——法西斯主 义 ② 和共产主义 ③ ——都过于激烈,而将合作社称为中间道路(The Middle way): 在社会层面上合作社是民主的,并且最大限度地提供地方参与和控制,但合作社 并不没收现存资本,而是致力于建立新的社会资本;...
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两者之间的中道(the middle way),便是正如上一篇文章所提及,如实认识与了解自己的限制,然后逐步循序渐进地提升这限制,不操之过急。
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中间道路学派
中观庄严论
入中论月称菩萨着
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The Middle Way
The Middle Way is a book on political philosophy written by Harold Macmillan (Conservative Party politician and later prime minister). It was first published in 1938 (by Macmillan & Co, Ltd, London).
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To use the middle way essentially means that Washington and Beijing should not be too optimistic, or even too pessimistic, about their relations.
中庸,意味着华盛顿和北京对两国关系不应该太乐观,也不宜太悲观。
The agreement aims to help pave the way toward creating a series of gas pipelines from central Asia and the Middle East through Turkey and into Europe.
VOA: standard.
So increasingly now, Africa, Middle East, all the way over to India and then to China, huge trade routes, huge investment routes.
趋势越来越明显,非洲,中东地区,一直往东到印度再到中国,一条巨大的商业渠道,巨大的投资线路。
So, this one can be tricky because oxygen looks like it's in the middle because of the way it's written, but we need to start by looking at the lowest ionization energy.
这个例子可能有些狡猾,因为氧看起来是在中间的,因为它是这样写的,但是我们需要从寻找最低的电离能开始。
The middle way has been a lonely and perilous road for the world's longest-reigning monarch.
Moreover, he has recently shown signs of exasperation with his 20-year pursuit of the middle way.
The sheer work of it, and lack of obvious clarity, calls for great patience and an ability to find the middle way.
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感谢您的反馈,我们会尽快进行适当修改!原标题:佛教在印度的遭遇:喧闹的菩提伽耶阿克塔用摩托车载着我穿过一座大桥来到尼连禅河的对岸,一片稀疏的树林之间有条小路。“当年佛祖在河里洗了个澡,洗去身上的污秽,然后从这里上岸,继续南行。”他指着路旁一处残垣断壁补充道,“这就是后人为纪念佛祖上岸处而修建的佛塔,可惜只剩下底座了。”我环顾四周,试图勾勒出那座佛塔当年的模样,却发现树林里遍地垃圾,肮脏不堪,佛祖生活的世界早已无法想象了。小路的尽头有棵大榕树,树干有一米多粗,树冠更是大得惊人,在树林里留下了一个巨大的阴影。“当年佛祖就是在这样一棵榕树下休息打坐,遇到一位名叫苏迦塔(Sujata)的村女,给了佛祖一碗乳酪米饭,他吃了后终于恢复了元气。”阿克塔对 我说,“跟随他的那5名信徒看到此景,认为佛祖放弃了理想,便离他而去了。但其实佛祖并没有放弃,他继续向南,来到一株菩提树下打坐,发誓不悟成正道就绝 不起身。”印度比哈尔邦开设牛市的历史很悠久,当时人们用大象和马匹在象征吉祥的恒河上交易日,印度金奈,排灯节前赶回家过节的旅客们坐在拥挤的火车车厢内此时已近中午,气温超过了30℃,我浑身燥热难当,便脱了外套坐在榕树下休息。印度纬度低,加之三面环海,绝大部分地区一年四季气候湿热难耐,古人 没有空调,肯定更难受,在大树下静息便成为印度人避暑的最好方式。再加上印度北方盛产大麻和鸦片,在高温和致幻剂的双重作用下,古印度人养成了打坐冥想的 习惯。更重要的是,印度的种姓制度养活了一大批婆罗门,他们唯一的职责就是主持祭祀活动,有大把大把的时间可以用来思考。同时代的大部分国家尚未达到如此 高的社会分工水平,这就是为什么古印度出了很多思想家的原因,不是因为印度人天生聪明,而是环境与社会制度导致的结果。这批思想家使得古印度的哲学和数学 水平领先于全世界,“零”这个概念就是印度人首先发明的,被誉为是数学发展史上最重要的突破之一。休息了一阵,我们骑上摩托车继续往南走,一刻钟后便又回到了菩提伽耶镇,著名的大觉寺就坐落在镇中心。这是佛教最神圣的寺庙,其主体部分是一座高 50多米的佛塔,很远就能看到。这座佛塔的前身是由印度历史上著名的佛教国王阿育王(Ashoka)于公元前250年左右命人修建的,后来随着佛教的衰落 而被人遗忘了。现在大家看到的是公元600年左右建成的新塔,不过这座新塔后来又遭到了穆斯林军队的破坏,直到1885年英国殖民地政府拨出专款进行修 复,这才成为我们今天看到的样子。整座塔都是用砖头砌成的,塔身上刻满了复杂细腻的几何图案,人形雕像数量很少。塔内供奉着一尊镀金坐像,佛祖身披黄色袈 裟,大耳垂肩,双眼低垂,面容慈祥。参观大觉寺不要钱,但必须脱鞋,可是这座寺庙的面积很大,又是露天的,游客们不得不踩着鸟屎前行。来此参观的游客成分极为复杂,既有穿着民族服装的 印度本地人,又有来自世界各地的背包客,但人数最多的要算是来自亚洲各国的僧人团体,他们大都穿着统一的服装,不论男女都只有一种颜色,与印度妇女色彩绚 丽的纱丽形成了鲜明对比。佛教史上那棵著名的菩提树的后代就种在大觉寺的后面,原树被阿育王的夫人下令砍掉了,因为她嫉妒丈夫每天都花很多时间在树下打坐,没时间陪自己。幸 好阿育王的女儿将原树的树枝运到斯里兰卡扦插繁殖,这才算保住了树种。今天大家见到的这棵树是1885年翻修时从斯里兰卡那棵树上砍下来的树枝扦插而成, 其象征意义是不言而喻的。每天都有无数佛教徒在树下打坐诵经,试图借助这棵“正宗”菩提树的神力帮助自己提高修为。我也学着他们的样子找了个空地坐下来盘腿打坐,却发现自己怎么也静不下心来。佛塔周围的空地上,来自泰国、缅甸、日本、韩国和斯里兰卡等佛教国家的 信徒们各自圈一块地方集体打坐,由老和尚用麦克风带领大家念经,各种语言的诵经声此起彼伏,诵得我心慌意乱。突然一阵微风起,菩提树上掉下一片叶子,有两 个眼尖的教徒迅速坐起来冲过去抢,一时间僵在那里。“佛教徒们相信从这棵树上掉下来的叶子有魔力,得一片可保平安。”阿克塔悄悄对我说。如果佛祖活到今天,不知道会作何感想?传说他当年走到这棵菩提树下,看到一个琴师在调弦,太松太紧都不成调。他由此得到启发,在树下打坐冥想了三天 三夜,终于明白“中道”(Middle Way)才是正解。此后他又花了七七四十九天反复斟酌,确信自己得到了真理。从此他自封为佛陀(Buddha),意为“觉悟了真理的人”。佛祖究竟悟到了什么呢?北京大学国际关系学院尚会鹏教授认为,他悟出了跳出轮回达到解脱的法门。按照尚教授撰写的《印度文化史》一书中的说法,佛祖 意识到人生有生老病死等“八苦”,而痛苦的原因在于人有贪欲,有愚痴(惑),对世俗世界有执著。人只有抛弃一切世俗的追求,才可以达到无生无灭的极乐世 界。而要想实现这一点,极端苦行或者沉溺于肉体的欢乐都是行不通的,只有在外按照佛教的戒律生活(八正道),在内坚持修习禅定,深入自己的内心去寻找答 案,才能最终得到解脱,到达涅槃的境界,即获得最高级的幸福。“我觉得佛祖如果活到现在,一定是个激进的知识分子。”阿克塔对我说,“他的很多主张都是反权威的,也是很理想主义的。”尚会鹏教授也认为,佛祖提出的很多主张都是为了和婆罗门教对着干的,比如他提倡尊重生命,反对杀生,反对婆罗门教的动物祭祀制度,他还提出了“四姓 平等”的主张,认为人不应该因为肤色、出身和贫穷而受到歧视,只有德高望重的婆罗门才值得尊敬。这些主张直接向婆罗门教的核心价值观——种姓制度发起了挑 战。值得一提的是,佛祖对妇女却仍然有所歧视,他曾经对弟子说,对待妇女应该视而不见,如果必须看见那就不要说话,如果必须说话那就保持警惕。直到很久以后他才松口,允许妇女成为佛教徒(比丘尼)。参观完毕,我和阿克塔走出大觉寺,大街上熙熙攘攘,游客络绎不绝。我注意到马路正中央趴着一个要饭的少年,他的一条腿残疾了,细得像竹竿。我停下观 察了一会儿,发现虽然过往的行人很多,但几乎没有一个人给他钱,有一位穿藏袍的僧人把手里的一罐未开封的软饮料放在了他的要饭碗里,但是几秒钟后,不知从 哪里走来一位妇女,捡起那罐饮料放在了自己随身携带的布包里。原来这位妇女是个叫花头子,这条街上有好几个残疾儿童都归她管辖。距离这里不到20米远就有 一个荷枪实弹的警察,但显然他是不打算管的。印度乞丐的人数之多,年龄之轻,外形之惨,意志之坚定,绝对是世界之最。印度的乞讨者大致分为两种:一种是残疾人,缺胳膊少腿都算轻的,我曾经在火 车站见过一个残疾乞丐,四肢全都萎缩成竹竿状,在地上爬行时看得我一阵揪心;另一种是老人和孩子,老人通常坐在火车站、繁华路口或者旅游景点的门外乞讨,儿童们则四处打游击,见到衣着体面的人就走过去用脏手抓住对方裤管,另一只手做出吃饭的手势。据我观察,儿童乞丐的背后大都有一个叫花头子暗中监视,这些都是职业的乞讨者。“成年乞丐的情况我说不好,可那么多儿童当乞丐实在是太不应该了,家长们都哪去了?印度难道没有义务教育法吗?”我问阿克塔。“法律倒是有,但执行不力。”阿克塔答,“我们这里的公立学校质量很差,学费虽然很低,但还是要交文具费和生活费,很多家长连这点钱都交不起,只好让孩子辍学。”阿克塔带我去见他的好朋友拉维·库玛(Ravi Kumar),库玛办了一所私人学校,收容了几百名辍学生。学校建在一个古代佛塔遗址的旁边,传说这座佛塔是阿育王所建,为了纪念那个给了佛祖一碗乳酪米 饭的村女苏迦塔。这样做既表明了学校的宗旨,又可以借此宝地吸引外国游客前来参观,便于接受捐款。库玛先生受过很好的教育,曾经在大城市有份不错的工作,却自愿选择辞职回乡开办了这所学校。“我自己就来自一个非常贫穷的家庭,小时候就是在这样一 所由志愿者开办的学校里接受了良好的教育,这才有了今天。”库玛告诉我,“所以我相信教育是农村孩子们最需要的东西,既然政府办不好,那我就自己来。”印度公立学校的低效率举世闻名。根据美国哈佛大学教授迈克尔·克雷默(Michael Kremer)所做的一项研究显示,印度公立学校所有注册教师中有1/4平时从来不上班,而上班的那些教师中有一半人从来不上课。根据一家印度教育机构所 做的调查,只有不到一半的印度小学五年级学生能够达到二年级的语文和算术水平。这就是为什么相当多的印度家庭宁愿花点钱送孩子去私立学校,即使是很穷的家 庭也不得不这么做的原因。好在印度的私立学校也分两种,一种非常昂贵,全部用英文授课;一种则很便宜,普通家庭的孩子也上得起。这样做的结果就是印度正在 按照教育水平的高低而被分成两个完全不同的“国家”,一个由文盲(约占印度总人口的1/3)和公立学校培养出来的半文盲组成,包括绝大多数农民和体力劳动 者;另一个则由私立学校的毕业生组成,他们是印度中产阶级的主体。“比哈尔邦的教育状况尤其糟糕,因为我们曾经出过一个非常腐败的领导人拉鲁·亚德夫(Laloo Yadov)。”阿克塔补充道,“他把比哈尔邦的经济搞得一团糟,老百姓也越来越穷,没钱送孩子读书。”“你们为什么不把他选下去呢?”我好奇地问。“我可从没投过他的票,不过很多低种姓的人喜欢他,觉得他是穷人的代言人。”这个亚德夫曾经是印度政坛一位呼风唤雨式的人物,他出身低种姓家庭,从小就能说会道,大学毕业后投身政坛,依靠个人魅力在1990年大选中获胜,成 为比哈尔邦首席部长。他擅长在选举中打种姓牌,自称是低种姓群众的代言人,为此他不惜煽动仇恨,号召低种姓民众起来造高种姓的反,直接导致了种姓战争的爆 发。为了获得穆斯林群体的选票,他甚至还曾故意装扮成本·拉登的样子参加竞选,此举招来了不少非议,但却让他获得了很多宝莱坞演员的欢迎,影星们喜欢这种 有着鲜明个性的政治家,纷纷为他站台,替他拉选票。上台后的亚德夫开始肆无忌惮地贪污,据说总额超过了2亿美元。在反对党的压力下,1997年他被迫辞职,却又成功地将他的文盲妻子推上了首席部长的 位子,而且一坐又是7年,直到2005年才终于被选下了台。这期间比哈尔邦的实际掌权者毫无疑问还是他,也就是说,他担任比哈尔邦最高领导人长达15年之 久。下台后,亚德夫又当上了印度铁道部部长,直到2009年才终于离开了这个职位。不过他现在仍然是印度国会的议员,所有那些贪污指控都没能撬动他一根毫毛。印度著名专栏作家格查仁·达斯(Gurcharan Das)在他那本畅销书《解放了的印度》(India Unbound)中专门写了亚德夫的故事。在达斯看来,这个故事很好地反映了印度民主制度和种姓制度结合的后果,那就是进一步导致了印度社会的两极分化。 早在上世纪50年代,尼赫鲁政府便修改法律,强迫政府机关和大学必须把20%的位置留给低种姓民众。随着低种姓官员的人数越来越多,对选票的争夺越来越激 烈,这个比例已经上升到了50%左右,也就是说,印度一半的公务员和大学生不是按照能力或者成绩而被挑选上来的,其结果可想而知。不过,达斯认为,这是印 度式民主必然要付出的代价,种姓制度无论如何必须被打破,只不过他认为要想做到这一点,必须借助资本主义市场经济的力量,提高低种姓人群的地位和财富,而 不是为了拉选票而强制推行人人平等的政策。那么,早在2500年前就主张人人平等的佛陀后来的结局是怎样的呢?我决定追随他当年的脚步,去鹿野苑走一趟。(来源:三联生活周刊)
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